Insight Vs Action Therapies in Psychology

Psychotherapy is a social interaction in which a trained professional tries to help another person, the client or patient, behave and feel differently.  The therapist follows procedures that are to a greater or lesser extent prescribed by a certain theory or school of thought.  It is important to note that the people who seek or are sent for professional help have probably tried non professional avenues to feeling better and have failed to obtain relief.  Before most individual go to a psychotherapist, they have confided in friends or in a spouse, perhaps spoken to the family doctor, consulted with a member of clergy and may be tried several of the vast number of self-help books and programmes that are so popular.  For most people in psychological distress, one or more of these options provide enough relief, and they seek no further help.  But for others these attempts fall short, and individuals are left feeling helpless, often hopeless.  These are the people who go to mental health clinics, university counselling centers and the private offices of independent practitioners.

Psychotherapies can be insight therapies or action (behavioural) therapies.  Insight therapies, such as psychoanalysis, Humanistc etc., assume that behaviour, emotions and thoughts become disordered because people do not adequately understand what motivates them, especially when their needs and drives conflict.  Insight therapies try to help people discover the true reasons they behave, feel and think as they do.  However, insight is not exclusive to the insight therapies.  The action therapies too bring insight to the individual, but more importance is given to the overt behaviour and its modification.  The newer cognitive therapies, such as CBT and REBT are a blend of insight and behavioural therapies.  

From Davison, G.C. & Neale, J.M. (2003). Abnormal Psychology. John Viley & Sons, Inc.

SOCIO-CULTURAL PROSPECTS OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Recent findings by Social Psychologists denote that there is enough importance of satisfying social relationships and support from others for our health and happiness.  They also identified that well being and happiness are the two entities that has to be kept optimal, and the normalcy of these two differs socially as well as culturally.  Further inquiries regarding this across diverse cultures revealed that in order to acquire these, people, in general, have a tendency budge through potential dark side of affluence and materialism.  Such materialistic people, those who sacrifice fulfillment of important psychological needs in their pursuit of fame and fortune, would also sacrifice their own happiness and life satisfaction.  The establishment and advancements made by Humanistic Psychology theorists such as Maslow, Rogers etc. resulted in the development of theories and practices involved in human happiness.  Based on these theories, and out of the chemistry occurred during their formation, a new stance in Psychology emerged.  Martin Seligman, in 1998 called this new area as Positive Psychology.

Historically, Psychology has had an inclination to discuss more about the mysterious negatives of the cognitive, conative and affective experiences of the mankind.  The reason behind this may be the human tendency to perceive negative aspects as more authentic and real.  It may also be due to the love of mysteries and a predisposition to be more external in locus that held up “bad is greater than the good” feeling.  However, the call made by Martin Seligman about the new perspective of Positive Psychology resulted in a paradigm shift; that is to offset this negative image of human nature with a more balanced view. It does not deny the negative, nor does it suggest that all of Psychology focuses on the negative. Rather, it gives a chance to enquire empirically the ordinary human strengths and virtues.  Moreover, it studies the optimal human functioning and aims to discover and promote the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive. It addresses positive aspects of experience to improve the quality of individual and community life.

Positive Psychology is the scientific study of personal qualities life choices, life circumstances and socio-cultural conditions that promote a life well lived, defined by criteria of happiness, physical and mental health, meaningfulness and virtue.  The origin of the term “positive” shall be traced back to Maslow’s Motivation and Personality.  As aforesaid, it is not a new major, but the same old one, with a realistic and balanced view of human nature that includes human strengths and virtues without denying human weakness and capacity for evil.  Positive psychology covers topics such as well-being, happiness, positive emotions, psychological health, personal strengths, positive experiences and states (mindfulness, flow, creativity), positive environments and the positive characteristics of individuals, groups, institutions and communities.

  A major goal of Positive Psychology is to restore balance within the discipline of Psychology.  Seligman and his colleagues have proposed that happiness as a central focus of Positive Psychology.  In his book, Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment, Seligman outlines three ways to increase happiness: get more pleasure out of life, become more engaged in what one do and find ways of making life feel more meaningful.

Pleasure enhancement shall be done, in his opinion, through Savouring (awareness of pleasure and of giving deliberate conscious attention to the experience of pleasure; e.g. Sharing with others, Memory building, Self‐congratulation, Sharpening perception, Absorption), Mindfulness (can be developed through meditation and mindfulness based therapies. Through mindfulness we can focus our perspective and sharpen our experience of the present moment), and avoidance of forming habits (Rapidly repeated indulgence in the same pleasure does not work. Neurons are wired to respond to novel events, and not to fire if the events do not provide new information).

Engagement results from nurturing relationships (strong personal relationships among the friends and family have the greatest impact on satisfaction with life), identification and usage of personal strengths (cultivating and using strengths at work, in familial, social and cultural life and in leisure time) and seeking out ‘flow’ experiences (flow or a state of joy, creativity and total involvement would make the problems disappear leaving with feeling of transcendence).

The third method of finding meaning is achieved by keeping a gratitude diary (to write down each day three things that went well and why), thanking a mentor (writing a letter of thanks to someone, such as a teacher or grandparent), learning to forgive (letting go of anger and resentment by writing a letter of forgiveness to a person who had done a wrong), weighing up one’s life (taking time to think about the major facets of one’s life such as family, work, finances, health and play), performing small acts of kindness (creates a measurable boost to happiness levels and enhances the connection), and finding a connection to a larger purpose (using personal strengths in a voluntary capacity.  Religion, philosophy or spirituality are a source of meaning for many people)

PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

Two kinds of sex cells or gametes are involved in human reproduction: the male gamete or the Sperm cell and the female gamete or the Ovum. When semen is deposited in the vagina the spermatozoa travels through the cervix and body of uterus, into the fallopian tube.  Fertilization of ovum usually takes place in the fallopian tube. The first sperm that penetrates fully into the egg, donates its genetic material (DNA).  The egg then polarizes and therefore repels any additional sperm.  The resulting combination is called zygote.
THE INITIAL STAGES OF HUMAN EMBRYO-GENESIS
The embryonic period in human beings at fertilization (penetration of the egg by the sperm) and continues until the end of 10th week of gestation (8th week by embryonic age).  The embryo spends next few days traveling down the fallopian tube. It starts out as a single cell zygote and then divide several times to form a ball of cell called a Morula.  Further cellular division is accompanied by the formation of small cavity between the cells. This stage is called a Blastocyst.  Up to this point there is no growth in the overall size of the embryo, as it is confined within a cyclo-protein shell, known as Zona pellucida.
The Blastocyst reaches the uterus at roughly the fifth day after fertilization. It is here that lysis of pellucida occurs. This allows the trophectoderm cells of Blastocyst to come into contact with, and here to, the endometrial cells of uterus. The trophectoderm will eventually give rise to extra-embryonic structures, such as placenta. Placenta and membranes are collectively referred to as conceptus or “product of conception”.
PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal development takes place during three periods: Germinal, Embryonic and Fetal periods.
Germinal Period
It is a period between conception and implantation (attachment to uterine wall – about 14 days).  The period occurs in the initial period of human embryogenesis
Embryonic Period
The period extends from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception.  Fourteen days after conception, the Blastocyst implants itself in the uterine wall. The embryonic period begins at the end of 2nd week. The embryo develops from a round layer of cells across the centre of Blastocyst. At 18 days embryo is about 0.0625 (1/16)thof an inch long. During its early weeks, human embryo closely resembles those of other vertebrate animals. The embryo has a tail and traces of gills, both of which will soon disappear. The head develops before the rest of the body. Eyes, nose and ears are not yet visible at one month, but a backbone and vertebral canal have formed. Small buds that will develop into arms and legs appear. The heart form and start beating: other body systems begin to take shape.
The Fetal Period
The period extends from 8 weeks through remainder of pregnancy.  By the end of the embryonic period (2 months), the fetus has developed the first bone structure and distinct limbs and digits that take in human form. Major blood vessels form and internal organs continue to develop. By the end of the first trimester (1/3rd length of pregnancy or 12.7 weeks).The fetus is about 3 inches long: most major organs are present, a large head and face are well developed, and heart beat can be detected with a stethoscope.
By the end of 4th or 5th period (month) can usually feel that movement. The skin of fetus is covered with fine hair, usually shed before birth. At the end of 5th month, fetus weighs about 1 pound and is about 12 inches long. It sleeps, wakes, sucks and moves its position. At the end of 6th month eyes, eyelids and eyelashes form. The fetus eyes are light sensitive and he/she can hear uterine sounds and respond to vibrations and acoustical stimulation.The head and body of the fetus become more proportionate during  3rd   trimester .Fat layers form under the skin. By the end of 8th month, the fetus weighs about 5 pounds and is about 18 inches long.
By the end of the 9th month, the nails have grown to the end of fingers and toes. The skin becomes smoother and is covered with a protective waxy substance called Vernix Caseosa.The baby is ready for delivery.

SEXISM

            Sexism is a term coined in the mid-20th century.  It is the belief or attitude that one sex is inherently superior to, more competent than, or more valuable than the other. Sexism primarily involves hatred of, or prejudice towards, either sex as a whole, or the application of stereotypes of masculinity in relation to men, or of femininity in relation to women.

BENEVOLENT SEXISM

            Benevolent sexism is a term which denotes “positive” ideas and attitudes of men towards women, which are based on the assumption that men must take care of and sacrifice themselves for women (Thaindian News, 2011).  It is a chivalrous attitude toward women that feels favorable but is actually sexist because it casts women as weak creatures in need of men's protection (Yahoo! Answers).  Like hostile sexism, it is an ideology that supports gender inequality, and in some ways benevolent sexism can be even more insidious.

Benevolent sexism may seem harmless, noble, or even "romantic," but studies suggest that benevolent sexist attitudes of men towards women in our society have negative impacts.  Such affection or protection cannot be called as innocent since women are here assumed to be inferior to men. 

Benevolent justifications for discrimination (e.g., "Women should forego a career because they excel at childcare") are more likely to be accepted than hostile justifications (e.g., "Women should forego a career because they lack ability"). However, women who are more likely than men to reject hostile sexism, they often endorse benevolent sexism -- especially in countries high in hostile sexism, where male protection is most appealing. Ironically, it may be that high levels of hostile sexism among men lead to high levels of benevolent sexism among women

HOSTILE SEXISM

Hostile sexism, as opposed to benevolent sexism, is a negative emotion directed specifically towards women, such as anger, resentment, etc. Hostile sexism has three sources: dominant paternalism, or a need to control women; competitive gender differentiation, which is an emphasis on the differences between women and men and a devaluation of women; and hostile heterosexuality is viewing sex a resource and women as controlling sex for their own purposes.

Hostile sexism is the type that results in men believing that women are inferior. Women are far more likely to be opposed to hostile sexism than men are.  Hostile Sexism is the traditional idea of sexism involving negative feelings towards women. Individuals high in hostile sexism are more likely to endorse items such as “Women are too easily offended” and “Once a women gets a man to commit to her, she usually tries to put him on a tight leash.”  High hostile sexists are likely to have less favorable attitudes towards women in a nontraditional role (career woman).

There is a correlation between hostile sexism and benevolent sexism in men, meaning that men who have hostile sexist attitudes, such as thinking a woman's place is in the kitchen, also tend to have benevolent sexist attitudes, such a believing women should be protected by men.  According to Glick et al (2000), male dominance creates hostile sexism, but men's dependence on women fosters benevolent sexism--subjectively positive attitudes that put women on a pedestal but reinforce their subordination. Research done by Glick et al (2000) in a sample of 15,000 men and women from 19 nations showed that (a) hostile sexism and benevolent sexism are coherent constructs that correlate positively across nations, but (b) hostile sexism predicts the ascription of negative and BS the ascription of positive traits to women, (c) relative to men, women are more likely to reject hostile sexism than benevolent sexism, especially when overall levels of sexism in a culture are high, and (d) national averages on benevolent sexism and hostile sexism predict gender inequality across nations. These results challenge prevailing notions of prejudice as an antipathy in that benevolent sexism (an affectionate, patronizing ideology) reflects inequality and is a cross-culturally pervasive complement to hostile sexism.

Biological Rhythms

Biological rhythms are the regular fluctuations in our bodily processes and in consciousness over time. Many of these fluctuations occur over a course of a single day and are therefore known as circadian rhythms (from the Latin words “around” and “day”).

Most people are aware of their fluctuations in energy level, alertness and mood over the course of a day, and research findings indicate that such shifts are closely related to the changes in underlying bodily processes. In addition, the circadian rhythms seem to shift with age; as people grow older, their peeks often tend to occur earlier in the day. These cyclic changes in our bodily processes –are related to task performance. In general, people do their best work when body temperature and other internal processes are at or near their personal peaks.

SUPRACHIASMTIC NUCLEUS (SCN): This structure located in the hypothalamus, also known as a biological clock, plays a major role in the circadian rhythms. It appears that individual cells in this structure tick-or in other words keep track of time. This biological clock responds to light. Morning resets our biological clock, synchronizing it with the external world. This is necessary or else our clock seems to operate in a 25 hour cycle; thus if it were not reset each day, our internal biological rhythms would get farther and farther out of synch with the world around us.

PINEAL GLAND: For long term biological rhythms, such as mating season and hibernation another structure in the mid brain, the pineal gland, seems to play an important role. This gland which sits on he top of the mid brain, just in front of the cerebellum, secretes a hormone known as melatonin. It’s connected to SCN and secretes melatonin in response to input by SCN.

Melatonin influences several structures in brain, regulating the production of hormones, affecting many basic physiological processes. It is secreted mostly at night; so when nights are long, larger amounts are secreted. High levels of melatonin seem to trigger hibernation in many species. When days get longer, lower level of melatonin gets many species to enter into their summer phase or spring phase; they become more active and begin to seek a mate.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs to account for the range of human motivation. The base level in the hierarchy of needs is the physiological needs, pertaining to thirst, hunger, sleep and other drives necessary to the maintenance of life. Their needs must be adequately satisfied before higher ones can be considered.

If these requirements are reasonably satisfied, then the motivation for safety emerges, such as the needs for security, protection and freedom from danger.

If the physiological and safety needs are satisfied, the individual move up to another position in hierarchy, in which the psychological or social motives begin. At this point we find the motivation for love and belongingness, which includes having friends, a family, sexual relationship and membership in a group.

When the motivation for love and belongingness is achieved the individual is prompted to still another level, called self-esteem. It includes achievement, competence, approval, recognition, prestige status, etc.

Maslow was extremely interested in the highest level of his hierarchy, which he called self actualization. It is the fulfillment of our unique potentials. According to Maslow and other humanistic psychologists, it is the self initiated stirring to become what one is capable of being; the motive for, reaching ones full potential, for expressing ones unique capabilities. Self actualization which comes under the category of Meta needs.

META NEEDS

In  Abraham Maslows theory of personality, meta needs are the higher human needs which include justice, beauty, honor, order and self actualization. Metaneeds cannot be dealt with, according to the theory, until the pro-potent needs are fulfilled.

Ø  Wholeness(unity)

Ø  Perfection(harmony)

Ø  Completion(ending)

Ø  Justice(fairness)

Ø  Uniqueness(individuality)

Ø  Autonomy(self sufficiency)

THE EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION –“THE SIXTH SENSE”

Extrasensory perception—ESP—is defined by parapsychologists as the acquisition by a human or animal mind of information that could not have received by normal, sensory means. Some researchers, however, take issue with the term "extrasensory perception." They protest that the phenomena may not be "perception" at all, as the receiver of this information does not know if the knowledge is right or wrong when he or she first perceives it. It takes a corroborating incident to convince anyone that he or she has perceived anything via extrasensory means. Some parapsychologists prefer to say "paranormal cognition," but this term is subject to the same sort of criticism if the receiver is not instantly certain of the validity of the information. Besides, the researchers insist that the material in their field will eventually merge with present-day physics, so the adjective "paranormal" may be considered a misnomer.

Contrary to common usage, a parapsychologist is not a psychic, a mentalist, an astrologer, or one who gives psychic readings. A parapsychologist is generally a member of the Parapsychological Association, which was founded in 1957 and elected an affiliate of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1969. A parapsychologist is a scientist who is seriously interested in the paranormal (or anomalous phenomena), which includes telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, psychokinesis, hauntings, reincarnation, and out-of-body or near-death experiences.

*Bruce Willis and Haley Joel Osment in the film "The Sixth Sense"

Here are brief definitions of the areas of ESP that are studied by parapsychologists:

Clairvoyance is the awareness, without physical aids or normal sensory means, of what is going on elsewhere. In recent years, clairvoyance has sometimes been called remote viewing.

Out-of-body experience (also called astral projection) is the apparent projection of the mind from the body, often with the seeming ability to travel great distances in a matter of seconds.

Precognition (premonition) is the obtaining of information about the future that could not have been gained through normal means.

Psychokinesis (telekinesis) is the ability of movement of objects, seemingly caused by some force unknown to physical science. The direct action of mind on matter is the parapsychologists' current nominee as the energy involved in poltergeist cases—those bizarre occurrences when bottles and crockery float through the air, fires break out on living room tables, or disembodied voices cackle threats and obscenities.

Telepathy is the ability of transference of thought from one mind to another. Distance and time seem unable to affect this phenomenon.

Even from these brief definitions, it becomes apparent that many attributes of parapsychological, or psi, phenomena overlap. It has long been a contention of serious parapsychologists that each of these types of phenomena is but a single aspect of the life and the universe of which humans are a part. If such parascientific phenomena as the projection of the astral self, the ability to glimpse the future, and the facility to convey telepathic impressions are established, the boundaries of humankind's universe become limitless.

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*AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS